Introduction
The social sciences are the sciences of society and culture. They include sociology, traditional psychology, anthropology, economics, history, political science, and ethnic studies. The main objectives are to study human society, social relationships, cultures, and civilization. They frame the broad cultural perspective that helps define problems and document progress toward solutions. The social sciences are mostly descriptive, contributing to causal inference and theory building. They seldom establish a cause and effect. Social sciences tend to focus on scientific investigation for which it may be difficult to establish strictly measurable, quantifiable criteria.
Establishing cause and effect requires a functional relationship. A functional relation refers to the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable. When determined, these functional relationships can be evaluated to gain a better understanding of the factors that influence behavior. The science of behavior is a natural science and the proper application of its methodology can establish cause-effect relationships.
Basic Definitions
It is important to have a clear definition of some social science concepts.
Society: A large social group sharing the same social territory and social environment, subject to the same political authority and predominant cultural expectations. It is usually grouped into structurally related groups or subgroups with sets of roles that have different functions, meanings, or purposes.
Social Structure: The framework upon which a society is established. It sets the norms and patterns of relations between the various institutions of society. Family, law, religion, economy, and education are examples of social structures.
Social Norms: The collective delineation of acceptable conduct in society. They are the rules that prescribe what people in a society should and should not do. They are the formal and informal rules that govern the behavior of the people behaving in their specific social environment. A few rules describe the usual consequences for not following the rules. The effectiveness of consequences depends on them being enforced and applied.
Social Roles: The parts that people play as members of a social group. Each social situation defines a particular set of expectations for proper behavior. Roles are learned behavior.
Functionalism and Society: A theory based on the premise that all aspects of society (e.g, institutions, roles, norms) serve a purpose and that all are integral for the long-term survival of society/culture.
Rational Choice Theory: Assumes that individuals use rational calculations to make rational choices to achieve goals consistent with their own personal objectives. Many social scientists dispute the validity of rational choice since many individuals do not make rational utility-maximizing decisions.
The Cement of Society
John Elster is a political scientist and student of social order. In his 1989 book, The Cement of Society: A Survey of Social Order, he addressed the conditions for order in the social world. He became increasingly frustrated with rational choice theory as a guide of behavior or as a construct to explain choice.
He proposed two concepts for social order:
Stable, predictable patterns of behavior.
Cooperative behaviors.
The decline of a culture tends to be invisible from the inside. Note Elster's emphasis on observable, quantifiable, and reproducible behavior in identifying the target behavior required for maintaining social order. We must learn how to shape and maintain such behavior, known specifically as rule-governed behavior and prosocial behavior. Acquiring rule-governed and prosocial behavior begins in early childhood. As we witness the ever-increasing frequency of violent acts, many driven by conflict and/or hate, it becomes clear that effective practices for resolving conflicts must be taught, modeled, and reinforced, beginning in early childhood. Good parenting and effective educational practices are essential.
Tight and Loose Cultures
Michele Gelfand, a cultural/social psychologist, performed ground-breaking cross-cultural research on how the strength of a culture's social norms defines how tightly or loosely the population adheres to the social norms in place. It is a good measure of how solid is the cement of a given culture. “Tight” cultures are those where the social norms are clearly defined and permeate the culture with strong and consistent consequences in the form of punishment (as simple as a traffic infraction fine) after non-rule-following behavior. Gelfand refers to them as rule-makers. Those who live in countries where the norms are less clear, with fewer defined rules and inconsistent or less frequent consequences in the form of punishment for rule breaking are defined as "loose" countries. Gelfand refers to them as rule-breakers.
Gelfand defines the United States presently as an "individualistic and loose" country. We tend to be rule-breakers. We propose that these behaviors can be changed so we can live together in harmony. It will take all of us working together.
Gelfand had a conversation published in the Behavioral Scientist (January 17, 2019) with the senior editor Dave Nussbaum. She was asked which norms are better, tight or loose, and she responded "neither." She noted, "Extremely tight groups are very oppressive but extremely loose groups have little or no way to coordinate human behavior—what sociologists call anomie ( e.g., cooperation, conflict resolution). She concluded, "…cultures often need to have different levels of norm strength given their varying ecologies but they need to ensure they don't get too extreme." We need to heed her warning.
We cannot fail to see the similarities between contributions by Putnam and Garrett, Gelfand, and others' social-cultural research. It is reasonable to assume that "I" cultures are more like loose cultures and "We" cultures are more like tight cultures. As with everything else in life, it is a matter of degree. Their research gives us hope that there is a solid social science foundation that is evidence-based that can educate and guide us in the successful intentional implementation of cultural practice changes that will lead to greater rule-following, prosocial and cooperative behavior, and effective conflict resolution skills.
The Science of Behavior - Contributions to Rule Following, Prosocial/Cooperative Behavior, and Conflict Resolution
Rule-Governed Behavior/Contingency-Shaped Behavior
Norms are the rules of the culture. They define and describe cultural practices and the consequences of following or not following them. They set the occasion for reinforcing "stable, predictable patterns of behavior."
It is important to understand the historical perspectives of how rule-making and rule-following evolved. Indeed, a complete understanding of rules considers the roles they play in culture as well as their origins within the context of evolution from a biological, cultural, and behavioral perspective. As the verbal behavior of humans evolved, rules evolved. Some were formalized and others became part of folklore. They survived in the culture because they had a positive effect on behavior and cultural fitness. There is no guarantee that a person will learn to follow a rule that enhances cultural fitness. Verbal rules are taught and learned, beginning in early childhood.
The difference between rule-governed and contingency-shaped behavior is one of knowledge. To understand the rule, we must be taught the rule, memorize it, and learn when to apply it. Contingency-shaped behavior is learned because of the reinforcement or punishment that the individual is exposed to by their actions. Future behaviors are then modified based on the experience of reinforcement or punishment. One is usually not aware of what is determining one's own behavior. The causes of behavior are not mental. One has to recognize the historical, cumulative effect of the environment on one’s own behavior.
Rule-governed behavior requires the verbal behavior of others. Contingency-shaped (implicit) behavior requires no other person, only interaction with non-social reinforcement.
Teaching and following rules are essential for a child to become a socialized/prosocial adult and responsible citizen. We are susceptible to learning rule-following early in life because our biological and social capacity allows our behavior to be reinforced by others from the time we are born, and we teach our children rules to contribute to their physical as well as cultural fitness. The rule specifies behavior that eventually, with experience and consequences over time, becomes second nature. Effective rules and enforced consequences make behaving in our environment quite effective. As Michele Gelfand reminds us, rule-following enhances the fitness of the culture. Rule following adds to the cement of society. Our book, Engineering the Upswing - A Blueprint for Reframing Our Culture, provides more in-depth information on rules and norms as well as provides other pertinent references.
Creating Social Capital - Prosocial Behavior
In his 2009 book, Better Together, Robert Putnum introduced the concept of building social capital. His research demonstrated how groups of individuals from diverse backgrounds and objectives improved their lives and those around them by creating social networks. Social capital is a set of shared values or resources that allows individuals to work together in a group to effectively achieve a common purpose. The essential behaviors seen in those who engage in promoting social capital include: 1) building social trust, 2) engaging as citizens, and 3) practicing strong reciprocity. All of these behaviors are essential for the practice of conflict resolution.
Better together is prosocial individuals who engage in behavior that benefits the culture. All of these are learned behavior. The importance of parenting and effective early childhood education becomes apparent. Let us not leave this important practice of parenting to chance. Let's make effective early childhood education universal. This is a challenge that must be met satisfactorily. If one is a product of good prosocial parenting, it is probable that one will be a good prosocial parent. But, where do we start now?
We need to spring into action together before it is too late! Individual behavior is by definition social. It involves others no matter how individualistic we try to be. Humans are social animals. Social behaviors are maintained in culture by generalized social contingencies of reinforcement formed in verbal communities. We can learn to manage those contingencies effectively. Teaching children prosocial behavior at an early age with adults modeling and practicing prosocial behavior with others, can gradually transform our culture to adopt the greater good - by increasing our personal frequency of prosocial behavior. Over time, it will change our environment where goodwill is the go-to behavior. We can move to WE action together. As the recent Will Ferrell movie, Spirited, sings to us "Turn a ripple into a wave."
Shaping Prosocial Behavior
Prosocial behavior is engaging in actions that benefit others. The consequence of engaging in prosocial behavior is that it not only benefits others but also enhances society and the culture. By helping, sharing, donating, cooperating, volunteering, and performing other socially positive actions, we are also rewarding ourselves by enhancing our own well-being. Prosocial behavior is self-rewarding. Following the rules of society and engaging in socially accepted behavior (e.g., stopping your car and letting a pedestrian cross the street, or being appreciative, grateful, and kind to others) are also examples of prosocial behavior. It increases reciprocity in the community. Prosociality is central to the well-being of social groups and enhances the culture. Prosocial behavior has deep evolutionary roots.
Anthony Biglan has published extensively in the field of prosocial behavior. His book (2015), The Nurture Effect: How the Science of Human Behavior Can Improve Our Lives & Our World, is a must-read. It is an excellent source for learning "how the science of human behavior and society is helping us to understand what people need to thrive." Nurturing is the behavior of caring for and promoting the well-being, growth, and positive development of others through our actions. Nurturing is prosocial behavior. Biglan and colleagues have developed strategies to deal with many of the problems we have been addressing. His Values-to-Action proposal has created a system for helping communities develop action circles to address the problems that most concern them. We encourage you to visit https://www.valuestoaction.org/nurturing-communities.
Prosocial Behaviors are Essential to Rebuild the Cement of Society - Social Sciences Contributions
Conflict/Argument Resolution
John Elster, in his book The Cement of Society, proposed that for social order to occur, it must have a system of bargaining and conflict resolution for collective action. There are many root causes of conflict. These days, it seems that there is conflict everywhere. We need to identify the historical and environmental determinants that set the occasion for a given conflict to erupt. Most conflicting situations have a historical root. Most of us do not get any education or training as to how to go about resolving our differences. All we need to do is to look at the examples of the many dysfunctional members of our government.
Conflict is defined as an active disagreement between people with 1) opposing opinions (subjective perception), 2) principles (rule-governed behavior that is cumulatively learned, beginning early in life, that shapes your unique ability to discriminate right from wrong in a given situation), 3) values (behavior one has learned that guides one's actions) and 4) resources (access to positive reinforcers). Human behavior is at the root of every conflict. Conflict will inevitably arise and there is only one question; how to deal with it? A good place to begin might be to identify each of the four components held by the parties and attempt to let them see the source of the conflict.
In most group situations, reaching a consensus and agreement on a course of action is challenging. The give-and-take involved in determining a collective course of action requires bargaining. Having prosociality in your behavioral repertoire certainly helps. Prosocial behavior is the key to becoming a WE in a diverse group, both large and small. How do we get there?
Elinor Ostrom, in her presidential address to the American Political Science Association, told us:
“Our survival becomes more dependent on empirically grounded scientific understanding. We have not yet developed a behavioral theory of collective action based on models of the individual consistent with empirical evidence about how individuals make decisions in social-dilemma situations. A behavioral commitment to theory grounded in empirical inquiry is essential if we are to understand such basic questions as why face-to-face communication so consistently enhances cooperation in social dilemmas or how structural variables facilitate or impede effective collective action.”
In her book (1990) Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (1990), Ostrom for which she won the Nobel Prize, proposed a set of Eight Core Design Principles that are behavior principles to guide and facilitate the process of the engineering of shared social practices to help groups balance individual and collective interests. Groups cooperate better with other groups when there is shared purpose, equity, inclusivity, transparency, responsiveness, effective conflict management, and appropriate levels of self-management between groups and within groups. Prosocial behavior, like trust, respect, the willingness to compromise, and clearly defining shared goals, lead to cooperative behavior. Maybe we need to start teaching those design principles and reinforce practices leading to successful conflict resolution. Like John Lennon inspired us; "Imagine all the people livin' life in peace…"
Violence
The New York Times recently published an Opinion, ‘Our Schools Have Become Battlefields': Teachers Consider Arming Themselves in the Classroom (11/27/22). They noted that 2022 is on track to have the most school shootings ever in America. But, violence has also been expanding and now we find violence in the streets, workplaces, and homes in America. We see the effects of domestic violence and the many deaths that result because of it on a daily basis. These days, we do not feel safe at a Walmart or at a nightclub. We cannot walk the streets of many places in America without feeling uneasy. What is wrong? We need to research and address the root problem of our increasing rate of violence in the United States. We plan to address this very important and pressing behavior problem in a future essay.
For now, many people are looking at the causes of violent behavior. Accessibility to guns by people that should not have them is usually the battle cry - gun control. We agree we should deny access to guns to people that for whatever reason should not have them. Please, tell us how to do that effectively. We are not very good at predicting when someone will use a gun to kill others. We are getting better at analyzing and seeing the warning pre-attack behavior of shooters and it is usually found in their developmental and environmental history (we highly recommend The Violence Project (2021) by Jillian Peterson and James Densley).
But these are mostly discovered in retrospect from records or interviews with others who knew the perpetrator (they usually die in the act). What we need is to identify the root causes of the increasing rate of violence in our country; they are most likely to be found in the environment of the culture that we have created. Let's invest in this most pressing multidisciplinary research project. Let's move into a preventive public health model in addressing the behavior problems of our country. The social sciences have much to contribute!
Pass it on and see you next week!
Francisco I. Perez
Faris R Kronfli
Henry S. Pennypacker
For those of you who are interested in delving deeper into these issues we suggest:
H S Pennypacker & Francisco I Perez - Engineering the Upswing: A Blueprint for Reframing Our Culture - 2022, Sloan Publishing. It can be bought at The Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies bookstore (behavior.org) or at Amazon. All proceeds benefit The Cambridge Center.
Thank you Mike. Really appreciate your feedback. Prosocial behavior makes a difference that is visible when you interact with others that you frequently see. Many of my friends are now, while they walk in their neighborhood, connecting with other walkers they see by simply saying hello, how are you doing? That behavior, consistently creates a positive social habit that expands and grows and soon you find that others are receptive and reciprocate as time goes by. It is each of us, by engaging in prosocial behavior that promote well-being, growth, caring and positive development of others, It begins with individual behavior and over time becomes a group behavior of neighbors, friends and acquaintances. Soon enough and overtime the society will acquire prosocial behavior and the culture gradually evolves and becomes prosocial. It all starts with his/her personal and individual behavior. Francisco.
"Prosocial behavior is engaging in actions that benefit others. The consequence of engaging in prosocial behavior is that it not only benefits others but also enhances society and the culture. By helping, sharing, donating, cooperating, volunteering, and performing other socially positive actions, we are also rewarding ourselves by enhancing our own well-being. Prosocial behavior is self-rewarding."
I think this is the most important thing you gents have written.
I'll always remember this. and choose to exercise my free will, my consciousness, and my soul to engage in prosocial behavior.
Blessings to all three of you, and may this message about engaging in prosocial behavior be a blessing to others.